Social work theory · Volume B: Relational & Systemic

General systems theory

General systems theory is a framework for understanding any organised whole, whether a cell, a person, a family, an organisation or a society, as a set of interrelated parts that function together.

1. What it is

General systems theory is a framework for understanding any organised whole, whether a cell, a person, a family, an organisation or a society, as a set of interrelated parts that function together. Its central claim is that the behaviour of a whole cannot be understood by studying its parts in isolation, because the relationships between the parts produce properties that none of them has alone (von Bertalanffy, 1968). The theory was developed in biology and engineering and was later applied to the social sciences (Buckley, 1967). In social work it supplied a shared language for describing how individuals, families, groups, organisations and communities influence one another, and it underpins many later relational and ecological approaches (Payne, 2021).

Systems. A system is an entity made up of interacting parts that form a recognisable whole and work towards some shared function. Systems are nested: a person is a system made up of biological and psychological subsystems, and is also a part of larger systems such as a family, a school and a community (von Bertalanffy, 1968). Social work writers distinguish open systems, which exchange energy, information and resources with their environment, from closed systems, which do not. Human and social systems are open systems that depend on exchange with their surroundings to survive and develop (Hearn, 1969).

Boundaries. A boundary marks where one system ends and another begins, and regulates the flow of information, people and resources across it. Boundaries may be relatively open (permeable) or relatively closed (rigid). A family that allows no contact with outside services has a closed boundary; one in which members’ roles and responsibilities are unclear may have diffuse internal boundaries (Healy, 2014). The concept helps workers assess who belongs to a system, how decisions are made and how open the system is to help.

Interdependence. Interdependence means that the parts of a system affect one another, so that change in one part produces change elsewhere. A parent’s job loss, for example, may affect children’s schooling, the couple relationship and the family’s housing. This principle is often summarised as “the whole is greater than the sum of its parts” and is described as wholeness or non-summativity (von Bertalanffy, 1968). Interdependence also implies circular causality: events influence one another in loops, and a single linear chain of cause and effect is rarely sufficient.

Feedback. Feedback is the process by which a system receives information about the effects of its own output and adjusts its behaviour accordingly. The concept comes from cybernetics, the study of control and communication in machines and living things (Wiener, 1948/1961). Negative feedback reduces deviation and keeps the system stable, much as a thermostat maintains room temperature. Positive feedback amplifies deviation and can push a system towards change, growth or breakdown (Buckley, 1967).

Equilibrium, homeostasis and steady state. Equilibrium refers to a balanced state between the parts of a system and between the system and its environment. Homeostasis, a term introduced by Cannon (1932) to describe the body’s regulation of temperature and blood chemistry, is the tendency of a system to maintain stability through feedback. Von Bertalanffy (1968) preferred the term steady state for open systems, which remain stable while continually exchanging material with their environment. Social systems can show “homeostatic” resistance to change, which helps explain why problems sometimes return after intervention.

Entropy and negentropy. Entropy is the tendency of a closed system to run down into disorder and lose energy. Open systems can counteract entropy by importing energy, information and resources from their environment, a process called negentropy (von Bertalanffy, 1968). For social work, an isolated family or community with little exchange beyond its boundary may be at greater risk of decline, while access to support and information sustains functioning (Hearn, 1969).

Equifinality and multifinality. Equifinality is the principle that open systems can reach the same end state from different starting points and by different paths (von Bertalanffy, 1968). Multifinality is its counterpart: similar starting conditions can lead to different outcomes. Both principles caution against assuming a single cause for a problem and support flexible, individualised intervention.

2. Historical development

General systems theory grew from von Bertalanffy’s dissatisfaction with mechanistic biology, which explained organisms by breaking them into parts. He argued that living organisms are open systems and that similar organising principles appear across physics, biology and the social sciences (von Bertalanffy, 1968). At around the same time, cybernetics provided a mathematical account of feedback and self-regulation (Wiener, 1948/1961). In sociology, Parsons (1951) described society as a social system with interdependent institutions, and Buckley (1967) drew on cybernetics to describe social systems as adaptive and capable of structural change. These strands made systems thinking an independent, cross-disciplinary theory of organisation.

Social work adopted systems theory in the late 1960s and 1970s, partly to unify a profession divided between casework, groupwork and community work. Hearn (1969) argued that the approach could provide a single conception of practice. Pincus and Minahan (1973) identified four systems in every intervention: the change agent system, the client system, the target system and the action system. Goldstein (1973) proposed a unitary approach on similar foundations. Systems ideas then fed into family systems theory (see Family systems theory), ecological theory (see Ecological systems theory) and the ecological perspective in social work (see Ecological perspective in social work) (Payne, 2021).

3. Practical guidance

Systems theory gives workers a way to map connections and identify where change is possible.

• Identify the relevant systems. Use Pincus and Minahan’s (1973) framework to clarify who the client system is, who is being asked to change (the target system), who will work with you (the action system) and which organisation you represent (the change agent system).
• Assess boundaries. Consider how open a family, group or organisation is to outside contact, and whether internal roles and responsibilities are clear. In child protection or family violence work, rigid external boundaries may signal isolation and risk.
• Look for circular patterns. Ask how each person’s behaviour responds to and provokes others’ behaviour. This reduces blame and identifies points where a small change can alter the whole pattern.
• Anticipate homeostasis. Expect resistance to change and relapse into familiar patterns. Plan for maintenance and review, and treat setbacks as information about how the system regulates itself.
• Work at more than one level. Interdependence means that intervention with an individual may require action with schools, Centrelink, housing providers or NDIS planners. Systems thinking supports case coordination across agencies.
• Use equifinality. Because there are many routes to the same goal, involve clients in choosing the path that suits their circumstances and culture.

4. Critical evaluation

Strengths. Systems theory offered social work an integrative framework that could include individuals, families, organisations and communities within one model (Hearn, 1969; Payne, 2021). It shifts attention from individual pathology to patterns of interaction and supports a non-blaming stance. Concepts such as boundaries, feedback and circular causality remain part of everyday practice language, and the theory encouraged multi-level assessment and inter-agency work (Healy, 2014).

Limitations. Critics argue that systems theory is highly abstract and describes situations without explaining what to do about them (Wakefield, 1996). Its emphasis on equilibrium and adaptation has been read as conservative, because it can treat conflict as dysfunction and favour the maintenance of existing social arrangements (Payne, 2021). It has also been criticised for neglecting power: describing family violence as a circular pattern, for example, can obscure the responsibility of the person using violence. The theory says little about inequality, culture or structural oppression unless combined with critical perspectives (Healy, 2014).

Overall importance. General systems theory is a foundational idea in social work. Few practitioners now apply it in its original form, but its concepts shaped family therapy, ecological practice and the person-in-environment perspective (see Person-in-environment). Used with attention to power and culture, it remains a practical way to understand how change in one part of a person’s life affects the rest.

5. References

• Buckley, W. (1967). Sociology and modern systems theory. Prentice-Hall.
• Cannon, W. B. (1932). The wisdom of the body. W. W. Norton.
• Goldstein, H. (1973). Social work practice: A unitary approach. University of South Carolina Press.
• Healy, K. (2014). Social work theories in context: Creating frameworks for practice (2nd ed.). Palgrave Macmillan.
• Hearn, G. (Ed.). (1969). The general systems approach: Contributions toward an holistic conception of social work. Council on Social Work Education.
• Parsons, T. (1951). The social system. Free Press.
• Payne, M. (2021). Modern social work theory (5th ed.). Red Globe Press.
• Pincus, A., & Minahan, A. (1973). Social work practice: Model and method. F. E. Peacock.
• von Bertalanffy, L. (1968). General system theory: Foundations, development, applications. George Braziller.
• Wakefield, J. C. (1996). Does social work need the eco-systems perspective? Part 1. Is the perspective clinically useful? Social Service Review, 70(1), 1–32.
• Wiener, N. (1961). Cybernetics: Or control and communication in the animal and the machine (2nd ed.). MIT Press. (Original work published 1948)